Ethics Auditing Essay Example

Ethics Auditing Essay Example Ethics Auditing Paper Ethics Auditing Paper Ethics Auditing: Identify the benefits and limits of ethics auditing. Is there a strategic role that ethics auditing may play in a company? Ethics Auditing By definition, an ethics audit is a â€Å"systematic evaluation of an organization’s ethics program and/or performance to determine its effectiveness. † (1) This concept of ethics auditing is fairly new and few companies have conducted an ethics audit. However, performing such audits will likely become more mainstream as recent legislation encourages greater ethical accountability for companies to demonstrate they are abiding by the law and have established programs to improve their ethical decision making. The U. S. Sentencing Commission (the â€Å"Commission) has amended the Federal Sentencing Guidelines for Organizations (â€Å"FSGO†) whereby an effective compliance and ethics program must â€Å"exercise due diligence to prevent, detect, and report criminal conduct and otherwise promote an organizational culture that encourages ethical conduct and a commitment to compliance with all applicable law. (2) The Commission noted there are seven minimum requirements of an effective ethics program: (1) Standards and procedures to prevent and detect criminal conduct; (2) Responsibility at all levels of the program, together with adequate program resources and authority for its managers; (3) Due diligence in hiring and assigning personnel to positions with substantial authority; (4) Communicating standards and procedures, including a specific requirement for training at all levels; (5) Monitoring, auditing, and non-retaliatory internal guidance/reporting systems, including periodic evaluation of program effectiveness; (6) Promotion and enforcement of compliance and ethical conduct; and (7) Taking reasonable steps to respond appropriately and prevent further misconduct upon detecting a violation. These requirements should be addressed through the ethics audit. Framework for an Ethics Audit In addition to the requirements noted by the Commission, there are many different questions that can be addressed by an ethics audit. How broad should the audit be? How often should the audit be performed? How will the company communicate the results with its constituencies? As each company has unique needs, each ethics audit should be unique. An example of a framework for an ethics audit is detailed below(4). Companies can adapt this framework to their own needs and circumstances. Step 1: Secure Commitment of Top Managers and Board of Directors As noted in the class slides, â€Å"a corporation only acts through those who act for it and it is the latter who must assume responsibility for the corporation. † (3) Essentially, management and the board of directors are responsible for the direction of a corporation. If there is no commitment from the top levels of a corporation, it is very unlikely that an audit would be successful. Step 2: Establish a Committee to Oversee the Ethics Audit The committee should consist of members who are knowledgeable about ethics auditing and come from various departments. In most cases, companies may not have internal employees that have the skill set to serve on an ethics audit committee. In such circumstances, external consultants, such as the Ethics Resource Center, can be used to assist with the audit. Step 3: Define the Scope of the Audit Process As mentioned above, each organization is unique and therefore, the scope of an ethics audit will differ from company to company. The committee should establish a scope based on the company’s risks and how those risks will be addressed. The committee should then monitor the progress of the audit based on the scope defined. Step 4: Review Organizational Mission, Values, Goals and Policies and Define Ethical Priorities In this step, the committee should examine and review all of the company’s policies, procedures and practices related to any areas defined in the scope of the audit process. All of these items may or may not be stated in the company’s mission statement. In some cases, the committee may find areas where policies need to be established and procedures updated. An effective ethics audit should review all these areas and assess their strengths and weaknesses. Step 5: Collect and Analyze Relevant Information This step is the where the majority of the audit work will take place. The committee should review internal and external documents and more importantly, gather employee, customer and stakeholder feedback through surveys. As employees are the key to carrying out an effective ethics program and to successful business operations, gathering and understanding their feedback is crucial. Customer and stakeholder perception of the company is also critical, so collecting their thoughts and opinions will help to create and maintain customer satisfaction and uphold stakeholder expectations. Step 6: Verify the Results The results collected in Step 5 should then be verified by an independent source. The independent assessment will verify the quality, accuracy and completeness of the audit. Having a third party verify this information will also offer an extra layer of assurance to external constituents. Step 7: Report the Findings The final step of the process is to report the findings to management and the board of directors through an ethics audit report. The report should outline all six steps discussed above and identify what the committee discovered throughout the process. In some cases, the findings may be more meaningful if combined with some benchmarking of similar companies in the industry. Such benchmarking is available through the OCEG Benchmarking Study that discusses best practices across industries. Benefits of Ethics Audits There are many reasons companies go through the process detailed above and perform an ethics audit. In some cases, management may simply want to comply with the FSGO or the board of directors may encourage compliance with these guidelines. From a business perspective, the auditing process can highlight trends, improve organizational learning and facilitate communication and working relationships (5). Internally, companies are able to assess their current policies and possibly find ways to increase efficiency in its operations. Additionally, the buzz word in the business world today is â€Å"transparency†. An ethics audit is one way to provide employees, customers and stakeholders with greater transparency. Many constituents have become wary of verbal assurances from companies. An ethics audit is verified by a third party and thus, seems to carry more weight than internal communication from management. Limits of Ethics Audits While the benefits of performing an ethics audit may be many, there are also some limitations. Many people interchange the words â€Å"ethics† and â€Å"integrity†. How do you measure the integrity or ethics of an organization? It is certainly not as easy to measure integrity as it is to measure financial performance. Financial performance can be quantified while integrity and ethics are the subjective aspects of a company’s culture. Models such as Six Sigma, the Balanced Scorecard and the Triple Bottom Line have been developed to capture structural and behavioral organizational ethical performance (6). However, these models likely will involve external consultants, which can prove to be costly to an organization. Additionally, ethics audits could uncover an issue that, when reported, could hurt employee, customer or stakeholder relations. This could also lead to public scrutiny. Strategic Role of Ethics Auditing Ethics auditing can be an important piece of the strategic direction of a company. The ethics audit can prove to be a useful management tool in helping a company to identify important initiatives and improvements. By identifying such initiatives, companies can prioritize its resources to focus on such ideas. The ethics audit can also help companies to fulfill their mission statements and identify areas where improvement of operating practices may be needed. In summary, and perhaps most importantly, the auditing process can demonstrate the positive impact of ethical conduct and convince constituents of the value of adapting more ethical and socially responsible business practices (7). Reference Page Cited Materials: (1) Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, Eighth Edition, p. 243 (2) Ethics Resource Center, FSGO, Part 2 Article: thics. org/resource/fsgo-series-part-2 (3) Corporate Governance Social Responsibility Class Slides, 9/26/2011 (4) Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, Eighth Edition, p. 252 (5) Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, Eighth Edition, p. 245 (6) Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, Eighth Edition, p. 248 (7) Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases, Ferrell, Fraedrich, Ferrell, Eighth Edition, p. 265

I Love You in German - German Phrases of Love

I Love You in German - German Phrases of Love He loves me. He loves me not. He loves me!...So youre in love. Or perhaps you just like someone. Anyhow, however your heart beats, here youll find phrases that all relate to I love you in German. If you want to leave an everlasting impression I have a suggestion for you at the end of this article. So, stay tuned. You Like Him/Her (All phrases mean â€Å"I like you.†) Ich mag dich. Ich hab dich gern. Du gefllst mir. You Like Him/Her a lot (All phrases mean â€Å"I like you a lot.†) Ich mag dich sehr. Ich hab dich lieb.Ich hab dich mehr als gern†¦Du gefllst mir sehr. You Love Him/Her Ich liebe dich: I love you.Ich liebe dich mit ganzem Herzen: I love you with all my heart.Ohne dich kann ich nicht leben: I can’t live without you.Ich bin verrà ¼ckt nach dir:  I’m crazy over you.Ich liebe dich, nur dich alleine:  I love you, only you.Ich bin in dich verliebt: I’m in love with you. When You Miss Him/Her Ich vermisse dich. Du fehlst mir.Ich habe so Sehnsucht nach dir: I ache for you so terribly.Ich verzehr mich nach dir: I yearn for you. After You’ve Done Something Stupid Bitte verzeih mir,...:  Please forgive me†¦Ich meinte es nicht so/ Es war nicht so gemeint: I didn’t mean it in that way.Ich war so ein Dummkopf: I was acting stupid.Kannst du mir vergeben?: Can you forgive me?Ich werde es nie mehr tun: I will never do it again. Asking Someone on a Date Mà ¶chtest du mit mir ins Kino gehen?  Would you like to go to the movies with me?Bist du heute Abend frei?  Are you free this evening?Bist du morgen Abend beschftigt? Are you busy tomorrow night?Kann ich dich wieder sehen?  Can I see you again?Wann kann ich dich wieder sehen? When can I see you again? Complimenting Him/Her Du siehst schà ¶n aus:  You look nice.Du siehst wunderbar aus: You look wonderful.Du bist heiß/ Du siehst so heiß aus!  You are hot/You look hot!Du siehst ja reizend aus!  You look so charming! Valentine and Love Phrases Tausend Kà ¼sse zum Valentinstag!  A thousand kisses for Valentines day!Ich wà ¼nsche dir einen wunderschà ¶nen Valentinstag!  I wish you a wonderful Valentines day!Du bist nicht nur an diesem Tag, sondern jeden Tag in meinen Gedanken:  You are not only on this day, but every day in my thoughts.Ich liebe dich wie nichts auf dieser Welt: I love you like none else in this world.Du machst mich so glà ¼cklich! You make me so happy!Ich liebe dich bis in alle Ewigkeit: I love you for all eternity.Ich liebe dich, mein Valentin/Valentinsschatz: I love you my Valentine/Valentine treasure. Some Familiar Expressions About Love Die Liebe ist alles: Love makes the world go round.Die Liebe macht blind:  Love is blind.Die Liebe wchst mit der Entfernung:  Absence makes the heart grow fonder.Die Liebe geht durch den Magen:  The way to a mans heart is through his stomach. Soll ich dich einem Sommertag vergleichen?  Shall I compare thee to a summers day?Er ist wie du so lieblich nicht und lind.*Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Shakespeare A Wonderful LoveSsong In case you prefer to sing about your feelings I have some inspiration for you in form of Bodo Wartke, a charming and gifted German entertainer  and you should certainly check out the other songs in the recommendations below.

A Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

A Business Plan - Essay Example Following is the list of elements required for the business plan Executive summary is one of the most important segments of any business plan. It will give the brief idea of the company’s business, background and expectations from the particular group. This creates interest for the investor to read further. It should be carefully written. This is written to give an idea about the market and the company operating in. The background of the company should include information like when company started, product or services it offers, its customer base, the growth it’s experiencing and current performance. Apart from company specific information it should also include the information regarding the market and industry it’s operating in. The market can be new developing or developed. The competition and the position of the company within that market give an idea to the investors about the overall position of the company and validity of its growth projections. The clarity of vision can be supportive to attract investors. Vision gives the overall picture of the opportunity existing and how company will be growing with that opportunity. It is supported by the financials and other non financial factors. This section discusses the about the opportunity existing in the market and the roadmap through which company will be operating to earn the profits. This will include planning for various functions of the company i.e. operations, marketing, human resource management and financial management. In this segment the financial strategy should be described. The capital budgeting, break even analysis, operating cost, fixed and variable cost, projection of profits, investment requirement, cash flow and balance sheets. The financial projections will give the bank or investor an opportunity to understand the financial planning and its coherence with the overall strategy. The organization structure includes the organization chart, brief

Line Management, Culture, Resoursce based view Case Study

Line Management, Culture, Resoursce based view - Case Study Example Line management is crucial in recruitments that are done in organizations. Procedure that are applied in line management have enabled following of norms in recruitment from analysis of jobs, advertisement of vacancies available based on job specifications and job requirements, resumes collection, conduction of written and verbal interviews and selection methods used in choosing the best recruits (Roy, 2007). Human resource management and function is much important aspect that has been applied in line management to achieve goals of organizations. Strategy that has been applied in human resource involves systematically linking of employees with activities of the organization. This has enabled working of employees with focus of achieving organization’s objectives. Analysis that line managers have done in organizations has enabled solving of strategic issues that relates to management of human resources in organizations (Bedward, 2007). Line management have been also used in focusing the integration between management of human resources and objectives and strategies that organizations have. This has contributed to effective management of resources leading to improvements in performance of organizations. Line managers have come to realize that they play an important role in peoples and employees that they manage. Issues that have come out in line management have been fast responded to enabling lack of diversion in objectives and strategies in organization (Lewis, 2006). Line management has enabled proper handling of costs in organization in achieving objectives in the organizations. Organizational cultures in human resource involve behaviors in hiring, training and orienting of employees in an organization. Culture in organizations has been crucial in strong alignment of organizations towards their achievement of goals (Bedward, 2007).

Author’s thesis Essay Example for Free

Author’s thesis Essay 1. Reviewer question: What is the author’s thesis? The author’s thesis revolves around the different ways wherein Carl can maximize his roles and capabilities in the profession he is associated with. Under this process, it requires an active communication of responsibilities and at the same time carefully understanding the planning and implementation process of his objective. This then helps strengthen his department and allows him to grow at the same time. 2. Reviewer question: Is the thesis clearly stated? If not, how would you help the writer restate it? Looking at the article, the thesis statement was not clearly stated within the introduction or beginning of the paper. Though the document was thorough in elaborating on ideas, the reader shall decipher relevant information in order for the main idea to be understood. If I was the writer, I would try to create one to two sentences wherein I will elaborate the central idea of my study and concern. Writer question: List the changes made based on this feedback. Also list those suggestions that were offered but that you did not make, and explain why you did not make the suggestions. Reviewer question: Does the essay’s body stick to the main topic? If not, where does it digress, and how could the writer revise the paper to make it stay more on the main topic? The essay main body does stick to the contention made by the author in the introduction. Though it lacks a clearly stated thesis statement, the succeeding paragraphs offer the readers a clear view of what are the (1) background, (2) prevalent problems, (3) what needs to be done and (4) recommendations for the issue. On the other hand, the writer must take a look at the transition and coherence of the paper. Sometimes there are different paragraphs that do not connect with the overall content and scope of the paper. Writer question: List the changes made based on this feedback. Also list those suggestions that were offered but that you did not make, and explain why you did not make the suggested changes. 4. Reviewer question: Does the paper contain any ambiguously-worded or confusing sentences? Please list them below and offer a suggested revision for each one you identify. The paper also contains several errors that need to be addressed. For example, the first sentence in the introduction seems confusing. The use of the word analysis was phrased incorrectly to address the idea. In here, the word analyze should be used instead. At the same time, under the key problems, the last sentence must also be looked into. The use of the word issues does not coincide with the succeeding phrase in the sentence. Either the word is changed to singular or plural form depending on the writer’s preference. Writer question: List the changes made based on this feedback. Also list those suggestions that were offered but that you did not make, and explain why you did not make the suggested changes. 5. Reviewer question: Which closing strategy did the writer use? Is the closing effective? Why or why not? Offer a revision suggestion for making the closing more effective. The strategy that the writer used revolves around providing a summary of what happened to the case of Carl. Analyzing this, it may prove to be effective on one point however this could have been changed to a more assumptive tone. This is because his case was already pointed out in the beginning and middle part of the paper. The readers already know what the consequences of his actions are and what it can provide to the company. One way to reinforce this study is by outlining in the closing further strategies Carl can do to maximize his potential and responsibilities. At the same time, it can also include new approaches and methods that can justify his position and further his role in addressing the current trends. Writer question: List the changes made based on this feedback. Also list those suggestions that were offered but that you did not make, and explain why you did not make the suggested changes? 6. Reviewer question: Please give the writer feedback regarding the essay’s effect on you. The essay was good in terms of providing information about the case and was able to outline the processes in a coherent manner. However, there needs to be changes in the way the thesis statement is presented, some grammatical considerations and the closing strategy. By trying to do these things, it can have further effect on readers because it can help them learn from the problems experienced by Carl and at the same time, understand the solutions and alternatives that are available in such conflict. Likewise, the use of simple words did help the reader further decipher the information and content and helped that ca cater to further comprehension of the topic. In the end, the writer should seek to address the proposed changes to help further the ideas surrounding the issue. Writer question: List the changes made based on this feedback. Also list those that were offered but that you did not make, and explain why you did not make the suggested changes.

Willa Cathers Death Comes to the Archbishop: A Narrative :: Willa Cathers Death Comes to the Archbishop

Willa Cather's Death Comes to the Archbishop: A Narrative Though many reviewers of Willa Cather's, Death Comes to the Archbishop, had difficulty classifying the book, Cather herself preferred to call it a narrative rather than a novel. I tend to agree with Cather. One definition from Webster's New World College Dictionary defines "narrative" as "a story", which is then defined as, "the telling of a happening or connected series of happenings, whether true or fictitious". A novel on the other hand is defined as having, "a more or less complex plot or pattern of events." Where most books tend to follow certain guidelines as to plot, Cather chooses to take a different route. Trying to create a tale that involves clever plot twists, bizarre characters, a telling climax, and a fitting denouement, would detract from the simple story she is telling. It is the story of two French priests who have been sent to the American Southwest to rejuvenate the Catholic churches in that diocese, during the late 1800's. The southwest, during this time period, was harsh and unhurried, and its indigenous people lived simple, remarkable lives. In keeping with the atmosphere of her story, the book is written almost as though her two main characters are keeping journals. The stories of Bishop Latour and Father Vaillant, who have adopted this rugged lifestyle, are told in little vignettes separated by chapters. Each vignette narrates a meaningful incident in their lives. I find it interesting that each chapter, or vignette, can stand on its own as an independent short story, yet it is woven together to create a tapestry of the Father's lives, with the people they meet and places they go tying it all together. Cather put it best when, in the book, she says, "Observing them thus in repose, in the act of reflection, Father Latour was thinking how each of these men not only had a story, but seemed to have become his story" (182). This type of "narrative" writing gives believability to the people, and a sense of realism to the story.

Leadership Style Essay

According to Reh (2014), a leader is a â€Å"person who has a vision, a drive and a commitment to achieve that vision, and the skills to make it happen† (para. 2). I want to be a leader; however I must understand my leadership style at this moment to understand where I am at, where I want to be, and what I need to do to get there. Raines (2014) states â€Å"your style defines your values and perspective, and being aware of it will aid your communication with those you work with† (para. 1). For the purpose of this paper I have chosen former President Bill Clinton as a leader that I admire. I will analyze his leadership style to identify characteristics and will provide specific examples of leadership qualities that I believe contributed to his success. I will finally examine my leadership style and offer ideas and plans for improving my effectiveness as a leader based on my work with my mentor. Read more:  The person whom I admire Bill Clinton Former President Bill Clinton is a transformational style leader. A transformational leader garners â€Å"trust, respect, and admiration from their followers† (Cherry, 2014, para. 4). President Clinton started his path to great leadership at the age of 13 when he became a comic book entrepreneur (Florida, 2013, para. 1). He learned that he could support himself and that gave him a confidence in himself that stays with him to this day. The qualities that I see in President Clinton that make him an excellent transformational leader is that people really do trust and admire him. When asked to describe his leadership style he states â€Å"explain where we are and  decide where we want to go. Figure out how to get there, get good people and trust them to do the job as long as they’re competent, realistic, and flexible when change is required† (Florida, 2013, para. 10). He also believes that the main skills necessary to motivate a team are â€Å"good listening and the ability to build consensus for action† (Florida, 2013, para. 16). President Clinton is also very charismatic. It has been told that he has the ability to make someone feel like they are the most important person in a room of many when he talks to you. He is a visionary, as seen in his many humanitarian efforts, and has that knack to make you believe in his vision. Personally, when I hear him talk I feel a calming presence, he talks in a language I can understand, and I trust him. One of the best examples of his leadership abilities in play was his ability to work productively with the Republican Party to solve the multi-billion dollar national debt during his term of presidency. It is well known that our current president very rarely has bipartisan support in anything he wants to do. My Leadership Style After reviewing all the leadership style theory’s and discussing this with my mentor it became evident that I am currently considered a participatory leader. WiseGeek (2014) defines participatory leadership as a â€Å"style of leadership that involves all members of a team in identifying essential goals and developing procedures or strategies to reach those goals† (para. 1). This is how I lead, by involving others in the entire process. While this is not a bad type of leadership style, the motive behind why I do these things illuminates a flaw in my leadership abilities. I have the tendency to not have enough confidence in myself to make decisions without a lot of input from others and permission seeking. My mentor used to be my boss and he told me that while I was ultimately one of his best program directors he had ever supervised; my journey to the directorship was exhausting and sometimes a bit frustrating for him. He stated that I would ask questions about every minute detail because I seemed to fear making a mistake. He said that for me to become a leader I need to believe in myself, have confidence that I am capable and I do know what I am  doing. He told me that until I learn to trust myself, I am going to have a difficult time getting others to trust me as a leader. He also told me that I have the capacity to become a transformational leader, which is my goal, but I have to let go of the fear, and allow myself to make mistakes. According to him, mistakes teach valuable lessons, and the way I react to the mistake builds character. My Plan My plan to transform into a transformational leader is to take risks, allow myself to make mistakes, and find the lessons in them. I am going to begin by taking initiative at work and in my personal life. I have historically taken initiative when I knew (for the most part) that things would work out. I can’t always have that luxury of seeing into the future, I just need to believe in myself and my abilities. I also plan to look at failure as an opportunity to start over and do better. I am not shy in asking for help, or asking questions when I am unsure of something. I do need to stop asking questions when I really do know the answer and take accountability for my decisions. I am a very good talker, and I have the ability to make confusing situations seem clear to others. For example, on our learning teams, I am the one that can break down the assignment and make it make sense for others, so it doesn’t seem so overwhelming. I plan to take that same confidence and apply it to all aspects so that I may one day become a leader like former President Bill Clinton. Conclusion In conclusion, President Clinton is a well-known transformational leader and the one I admire the most. He started young believing in himself and it has translated into great success for this man. My goal is to become a transformational leader and while I have traits of a participatory leader, I believe that it is possible to become the leader I aspire to be. I just need to have faith in myself so others will have faith in me. References Florida, R. (2013). President Bill Clinton: Don’t worry about yesterday, embrace tomorrow. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/rana-florida/president-bill-clinton-do_b_3697725.html Raines, S. (2014). The advantages of knowing your leadership style. Retrieved from http://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-knowing-leadership-style-18924.html Reh, F. J. (2014). What is a leader. Retrieved from http://management.about.com/od/leadership/a/whatisaleader.htm WiseGeek.org. (2014). What is participative leadership?. Retrieved from http://www.wisegeek.org/what-is-participative-leadership.htm

Innovative programs in special education Essay

Special education departments have introduced a variety of innovative programs for children with sensory impairment (deafness, hard of hearing, and blindness). There has been a good deal of success in opening access to regular school experiences to young people with sensory impairments and in educating their peers about the special concerns for children who are deaf and/or blind. There is a considerable body of evidence that innovative programs for teaching reading and spelling skills to children with disabilities should be both multi-sensory and phonic and that this type of teaching can benefit most children in any class at most stages. These are usually programs that are highly structured. They can be seen as essentially free-standing and can form a central element of the overall strategy for teaching children with disabilities. There are many such programs, often they have a slightly different focus, with different types of materials and strategies but they all include multi-sensory element and metacognitive aspects. The range of innovative programs for children with disabilities is impressive, and this work will provide some of the various types of programs and strategies that can be used in special education. Most innovative programs incorporate some or all of the following principles and approaches: multi-sensory; over-learning and automaticity; highly structured and usually phonically based; sequential and cumulative. Multi-sensory methods utilize all available senses simultaneously. This can be summed up in the phrase ‘hear it, say it, see it and write it’. These methods have been used for many years and have been further refined by Hornsby and Shear (1980) in phonic structured programs that incorporate multi-sensory techniques. Over-learning is deemed necessary for children with dyslexic difficulties. The short- and long-term memory difficulties experienced by dyslexic children mean that considerable reinforcement and repetition is necessary. The structured approaches evident in programs of work for children with disabilities usually provide a linear progression, thus enabling the learner to complete and master a particular skill in the reading or learning process before advancing to a subsequent skill. This implies that learning occurs in a linear developmental manner. Although there is evidence from learning theory to suggest this may be the case, there is still some doubt in the case of reading that mastery of the component subskills results in skilled reading. In reading, a number of cognitive skills such as memory and visual, auditory and oral skills interact. This interaction is the key feature; so, it is important that the skills are taught together and purposefully with the practice of reading as the focus. Sequential approaches are usually appropriate for children with dyslexia because it may be necessary for them to master subskills before moving to more advanced materials. Hence a sequential and cumulative approach may not only provide a structure to their learning but help to make learning more meaningful and effective as well. Programs based on the Orton-Gillingham approach have become a central focus for multi-sensory teaching (Hulme & Joshi 1998). The programs offer a structured, phonic-based approach that incorporates the total language experience and focuses on the letter sounds and the blending of these sounds into syllables and words. The approach rests heavily on the interaction of visual, auditory and kinesthetic aspects of language. Orton-Gillingham lessons always incorporate card drills, spelling and reading and usually include activities such as: card drills, word lists and phrases, oral reading selection, spelling of phonetic and non-phonetic words, handwriting, and composition. Once the child has mastered the letter name and sound, the program then advances to introduction of blending the letters and sounds. This begins with simple three-letter words and the child repeats the sounds until the word is spoken without pauses between the constituent sounds. The visual-kinesthetic and auditory-kinesthetic associations are formed by the pupil tracing, saying, copying and writing each word. Reading of text begins after the pupil has mastered the consonant-vowel-consonant words to a higher automatic level (i. e. , when the pupil can recognize and use these words). The initial reading material is taken from the program and contains words the pupil has learnt from the teacher’s manual. The program gives considerable attention to the learning of dictionary skills as well as development of written language from pictographs to ideographs and eventually to the alphabet. The program does appear to be more suited to a one-to-one situation, and it would be difficult to integrate the program within the school curriculum. As in many of the program derived from the Orton-Gillingham approach, the key principles of over-learning, automaticity and multi-sensory approaches are very apparent. In the USA, Morgan Dynamic Phonics have produced a series of phonic programs that focus on user-friendly approaches using the principles of Orton-Gillingham, which includes the use of humor and interaction (Hulme & Joshi 1998). The following programs are based on the Orton-Gillingham method: Alpha to Omega, The Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System, The Hickey Multisensory Language Course, Dyslexia: A Teaching Handbook, Units of Sound. Letterland, developed by Lyn Wendon, consists of many different elements. The materials are extremely useful for teaching reading, spelling and writing, and for developing and sustaining motivation. The programs are internationally renowned, as well over 50 per cent of all primary schools in England and Ireland rely on this program (Gersten, Schiller & Vaughn 2000). Letterland encompasses a number of teaching elements based on recognized and essential components of the teaching of reading. The major elements are: language, with an emphasis on listening, speaking and communicating; phonic skills; whole word recognition skills; sentence awareness; comprehension; reading and spelling connections; and preliminary skills in creative writing. The materials consist of teachers’ guides, wall-charts, code cards, flashcards, wordbooks, cassettes and song- books, photocopiable material, workbooks, games and resources, software, videos, and materials specifically designed for use at home. The program may also be seen as a preventative approach, since it is appropriate for early intervention and may also facilitate the reinforcement of important developmental concepts in learning, such as object constancy. The Letterland system essentially grew out of close observations of failing readers, and the materials reinforce the importance of a reading-for-meaning orientation to print (Gersten, Schiller & Vaughn 2000). Letterland focuses on letters and sounds, and by using pictograms encourages children to appreciate letter stages and sounds, thereby reinforcing both shape and sound of letters and words. Integrated within this, however, are the programs and exercises on whole-word recognition, reading for meaning, spelling and creative writing. Spelling is not presented as a series of rules, but instead through a story approach, focusing on the Letterland characters. Progress through the Letterland program is by a series of steps. These steps can provide the teacher with choice and flexibility, and the program can be implemented to the whole class, in small groups or individually. There are a number of aspects about Letterland that make it useful for some children with specific learning difficulties. These include the use of pictograms— which can be particularly beneficial to the learner with difficulties in phonological awareness and auditory skills. The use of the story approach to reading and spelling that encourages the processing of information using long-term memory is particularly beneficial to dyslexic children whose short-term memory is generally weak. The range of activities incorporating different approaches allows the learner to develop imagination and creativity in the use of letters and words. Other useful aspects include the focus on the context aspects of reading and the use of syntactic and semantic cues. Alpha to Omega is a phonetic, linguistic approach to the teaching of reading and can be used as a program or as resource material. It is highly structured and follows a logical pattern of steps that promote the acquisition of phonological and language skills. There is an emphasis on learning the 44 phonemes from which all English words are composed. These consist of the 17 vowel sounds and the 27 consonant sounds. There is also an emphasis on the acquisition of language structure, focusing on content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives) and finite words (prepositions and participles). There is, therefore, an emphasis on using words in the context of a sentence. The program provides a highly structured format for the teaching of sentences and for grammatical structure. There are also three accompanying and very useful activity packs designed for different stages. These packs provide appropriate back-up exercises to reinforce the teaching program. There is also an extremely useful program of learning games—before Alpha—that can be used with children under five. These games are in a series of structured stages, are multi-sensory and aim to foster language development and other pre-reading skills such as visual and auditory perception and discrimination, fine-motor control, spatial relationships and knowledge of color, number and directions (Gersten, Schiller & Vaughn 2000). The Hickey Multisensory Language Course recognizes the importance of the need to learn sequentially the letters of the alphabet. The third edition of The Hickey Multisensory Language Coursewas now incorporates aspects of the National Literacy strategy and the requirements of the Literacy Hour. The dyslexic child, however, will usually have some difficulty in learning and remembering the names and sequence of the alphabetic letters as well as understanding that the letters represent speech sounds that make up words. The program is based on multi-sensory principles and the alphabet is introduced using wooden or plastic letters; the child can look at the letter, pick it up, feel it with eyes open or closed and say its sound. Therefore, the visual, auditory and tactile-kinesthetic channels of learning are all being utilized with a common goal. These programs involve games and the use of dictionaries to help the child become familiar with the order of the letters and the direction to go (e. g. , he needs to know that T comes before ‘K’), the letters in the first half of the alphabet and those letters in the second half. The alphabet can be further divided into sections, thus making it easier for the child to remember the section of the alphabet in which a letter appears, for example: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. The Hickey language course includes: activities related to sorting and matching the capital, lower case, printed and written forms of the letters; practicing sequencing skills with cut-out letters and shapes; and practicing positioning of each letter in the alphabet in relation to the other letters (this involves finding missing letters and going backwards and forwards in the alphabet). The course also indicates the importance of recognizing where the accent falls in a word, since this clearly affects the spelling and rhythm. Rhyming games can be developed to encourage the use of accent by placing it on different letters of the alphabet. This helps to train children’s hearing to recognize when a letter has an accent or is stressed in a word. The course includes reading and spelling packs that focus on securing a relationship between sounds and symbols. This process begins with single letters and progresses to consonant blends, vowel continuations and then to complex letter groupings. The reading packs consist of a set of cards; on one side, the lower case letter is displayed in bold with an upper case (capital) letter shown in the bottom right-hand corner in order to establish the link between the two letters. The reverse side of the card indicates a keyword that contains the sound of the letter with the actual sound combination in brackets. Rather than providing a visual image of the keyword, a space is left for the child to draw the image. This helps to make the image more meaningful to the child and also utilizes and reinforces visual and kinesthetic skills. The spelling pack is similar in structure to the reading pack. On the front of the card the sound made by the letter is displayed in brackets, while the back contains both the sound and the actual letter (s). Sounds for which there is a choice of spellings will in time show all the possible ways in which the sound can be made. Cue words are also given on the back as a prompt, in case the child forgets one of the choices. Spelling is seen as being of prime importance by the authors of the program since they view it as an ‘all round perceptual experience’. This process involves over-learning and multi-sensory strategies. The Bangor Dyslexia Teaching Systemis a structured, sequential teaching program developed for teachers and speech and language therapists involved in supporting children with dyslexia. A useful aspect of this program is the division between primary and secondary pupils. Although it is acknowledged that some secondary pupils are still ‘beginning’ readers and need to go through the same initial stages of acquiring literacy as ‘beginning readers’ in the primary school, the program makes some special provision and adaptations for secondary students. This helps to make the secondary material more age appropriate. The basic philosophy of the program is not unlike that of other structured, phonic programs. It focuses on phonological difficulties and the problems dyslexic children have in mastering the alphabetic code. The program attempts to provide children with some competence, at the earliest stage possible, in recognizing and categorizing speech sounds. It is not possible for children to benefit from ‘top down’ language experience approaches to reading if they have not mastered the basic principles of literacy. Some of these principles, which the program for primary aged children focuses on, include: the teaching of basic letter sounds and the structure of words, long vowels, common word patterns, irregular words, alphabet and dictionary skills, grammatical rules and silent letters. The program shares the same principles as that utilized by other similar programs for dyslexic children. It is highly structured and the teacher has to proceed systematically through the program. The aspect of over-learning is acknowledged to be important, and therefore revision of material already learnt occupies an important place in the implementation of the program. One of the difficulties inherent in following the principle of over-learning is the aspect of boredom, which may result from repetitive revision of material already learnt. This program acknowledges that pitfall and suggests ways of overcoming it through the use of games and other adapted materials. The multi-sensory teaching element is also crucial in this program. Some of the exercises attempt to engage all the available senses simultaneously, thus acknowledging the accepted view that dyslexic children benefit from multi-sensory learning. The program also utilizes the particular benefits of mnemonics for dyslexic children as well as the notion of reading and spelling as an integrated activity. Some emphasis is also placed on encouraging dyslexic children to use oral language to plan their work. It is felt that such verbalizations help children clarify their thoughts and planning before embarking on a course of action. The secondary component of the program provides useful advice on dealing with the problem of teaching basic literacy to older students. Some effort is made to ensure that the student is familiar with polysyllabic words in order that the potential for creative writing is not unduly restricted. At the secondary stage the aspect of reading for meaning is of great importance in order to ensure sustained motivation. The Bangor Dyslexia Teaching System acknowledges this and suggests a range of techniques that can help to support the student through the decoding difficulty in order that maximum meaning and pleasure can be derived from the text. Such suggestions include: supplying difficult words; introducing the story and the book’s background and characters; pointing out clues such as capital letters and titles; encouraging fluency by reading from one full stop to the next; omitting words that are difficult, thus encouraging the use of context to obtain meaning; practice; and reading rhymes and limericks that aid sound and syllable awareness. The key principles found in the majority of individualized programs for dyslexic children-multi-sensory techniques, automaticity and over-learning-are all found in the Alphabetic Phonics program. Additionally, the program recognizes the importance of discovery learning. Opportunities for discovery learning are found throughout this highly structured program. The program, which stems from the Orton-Gillingham multi-sensory approach, was developed in Dallas, TX, by Aylett Cox. Alphabetic Phonics provides training in the development of automaticity through the use of flash cards and over-learning through repetitive practice in reading and spelling until 95 per cent mastery is achieved. The program also incorporates opportunities to develop creativity in expression and in the sequencing of ideas. DISTAR (Direct Instruction System of Teaching Arithmetic and Reading) was originally designed for socially disadvantaged children in the USA as part of the Project Follow Through scheme launched by the US government in 1968 (Hulme & Joshi 1998). The program is orientated to achievement in basic attainments and tasks and skills to enhance effective learning. Some of the features of DISTAR include: the transfer of learning from specific examples to general concepts; continual, positive reinforcement to enhance motivation and success; and the monitoring of progress through the use of criterion referenced assessment. In addition to reading skills, the current DISTAR program covers language, spelling and arithmetic. Evaluation studies display impressive progress in attainments among students undertaking the DISTAR program – results that appear to continue through to secondary education. Some criticism, however, has been raised that the teacher’s manual is too prescriptive and places too much restriction on teachers. The focus of the program on transferring skills from the specific to the underlying general task concepts is, indeed, commendable and can make the DISTAR materials a useful resource. Three recent studies trained phonological awareness in children with reading disabilities using the Lindamood Auditory Discrimination in Depth program (ADD), a method that first encourages awareness of the articulation of speech sounds. Two studies used no control groups, but reported good progress for students who had made little progress with other programs. The third study used matched groups of children with severe reading disability at a private school. The control group received the school’s well-reputed program, which included auditory training and strategies for encoding and decoding written symbols. The trained group spent 6 weeks learning ADD before merging it with the regular program. All children improved substantially by the end of the year. The ADD group did not gain significantly more than controls on standardized tests of reading and spelling, although trends favored the ADD group. Compared to controls, ADD children did make significantly greater improvement in the phonetic quality of their errors in spelling and nonsense word reading. Besides being a well-structured phonemic-awareness program, the ADD approach holds theoretical interest because of its strong emphasis on developing concrete articulatory (speech-motor) representations to distinguish phonemic differences. The program includes associating articulatory labels, pictures, letters, and sounds, and using these articulatory concepts in phonological awareness work and manipulating letters and sounds in reading and spelling exercises. This work described some of the innovative programs that may be utilized in special education. The programs are logical and consist of small steps. They also incorporate elements of all the modalities—visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile. Teaching is not only about providing information, but about accessing useful and transferable skills as well—for example, phonological awareness skills can be later transferred and utilized in writing skills. Essentially, the approaches involve thinking about thinking and the learners with disabilities consider how a particular response was arrived at. Children with disabilities is a whole-school concern, and not just the responsibility of individual teachers. Innovative programs require an established and accessible policy framework for consultancy, whole-school screening and monitoring of children’s progress. It is important to consider the rationale for using particular programs and strategies. Within the areas described here of individualized learning, support approaches and strategies, assisted learning and whole-school approaches, there are many effective means of dealing with disability. Therefore, the criteria for selection—the context, the assessment, the curriculum and the learner—must be carefully considered. It is important to link programs and strategies together because, while there are a considerable number of well-evaluated and effective commercially produced programs in special education, it is very seldom that the program can be used by untrained teachers. Even if a program has clear instructions, there is some skill attached to implementing such programs. Therefore, the teacher needs to be aware of strategies that can be used to reinforce the program and to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning that can take place through the use of the program. One of the main challenges facing teachers is the need to find varied approaches to learning that will motivate children and will provide the key elements that the child requires as well. If the child does not respond to a structured program, the teaching program should then be reevaluated. This would help to decide whether it is the most appropriate program to use. It is also important to consider other factors as the child may not be responding because she or he may only need a longer period to achieve the objective of the program. References Gersten, R. , Schiller, Vaughn, S. (2000). Contemporary Special Education Research: Syntheses of the Knowledge Base on Critical Instructional Issues. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ. Hulme, C. , Joshi, M. (1998). Reading and Spelling: Development and Disorders. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates: Mahwah, NJ. Hornsby, Shear. (1980). Alpha to Omega. Heinemann Educational Books. London. Lindamood, P. , Bell, N. , & Lindamood, P. (1997). Achieving competence in language and literacy by training in phonemic awareness, concept imagery and comparator function. In C. Hulme & M. Snowling (Eds. ), Dyslexia: Biology, cognition and intervention (pp. 212–234). London: Whur.

America Under Attack

America Under Attack America Under Attack On September 11, 2001 the streets of New York were soaked in ash, streams of tears fled down peoples cheeks, and the courageous fought the waves of flames. Over 5,000 innocent American citizens were killed at the hands of terrorist. Children were left orphaned; spouses were left widowed tearing families apart forever. Our country united trying to put the pieces of the puzzle back together. No longer can the people of New York sleep soundly, their eyes are forever haunted with terror, and their hearts are filled with grief. Do we deserve to live in this constant state of fear? America is under attack. We must regain our respect, and avenge those who have crossed the line we have drawn. We must go in and win the war against terrorism, and retaliate against those who have caused such heartache on our nation. "This enemy attacked not just our people, but all freedom-loving people everywhere in the world." United States(BBC News par.3) America has been fighting aga inst the war of terrorism for quiet some time. An incident, which is forever haunted in our hearts, took place on December 7, 1941. "Over 2,400 American soldiers lives were taken from them." (History par. 1) A terrorist attack was made on Pearl Harbor, killing those who fought for our security. The World Trade Center has been threatened before, taking once again innocent lives, placing more anxiety and fear in our lives. It has been proven that the only way to show that America is serious when it comes to its people is to take control, and go to the extremes. The acts or retaliation on Hiroshima displayed that America is willing stand up to any terrorist attack, to protect us, the people of the United States."Many of today's tyrants are gripped by...

Top 5 Supreme Court Scandals

Top 5 Supreme Court Scandals If your knowledge of Supreme Court scandals begins and ends with the tumultuous Senate confirmation process of Justice Brett Kavanaugh in October 2018, you will either be relieved or horrified to learn that he was by no means the first jurist with a less-than-pristine reputation. From the judge who refused to listen to cases argued by women, to a former KKK member, bad behavior on the nations highest court is not that uncommon. Here are a few of the juiciest scandals.   Supreme Court Fast Facts The Supreme Court is the highest court in the federal judicial system of the United States.The Supreme Court is composed of nine judges, including eight Associate Justices and the Chief Justice of the United States. Supreme Court justices are nominated by the President of the United States with the approval of the United States Senate. The Supreme Court has appellate jurisdiction (right to consider) over all federal and state court decisions dealing with questions of constitutional or statutory law, as well as original jurisdiction over lawsuits between the states.The Court also has the power of judicial review, the authority to overturn laws that violate the Constitution or unlawful acts of the executive branch. Wishing Washington Dead, Justice Rutledge Gets the Boot Appointed by President George Washington in 1789, John Rutledge was one of the Supreme Court’s first justices. He was also the first and so-far only justice to be kicked off the court. In June 1795, Washington issued a â€Å"recess appointment† temporarily making Rutledge Chief Justice. But when the Senate reconvened in December 1795, it rejected Rutledge’s nomination because of what John Adams called his â€Å"Disorder of the Mind.† Still not recovered from the unexpected death of his wife in 1792, Rutledge gave a rant-filled speech on July 16, 1795, in which he reportedly suggested that it would be best if Washington died rather than sign the Jay Treaty with England. In Justice Rutledge’s case, that was where the Senate drew the line. Justice McReynolds, the Equal-Opportunity Bigot Justice James Clark McReynolds served on the court from 1914 to 1941. After he died in 1946, not a single other living current or former justice attended his funeral. Reason being, they had all come to hate his guts. Justice McReynolds, it seems, had established himself as an unabashed bigot and all-around hater. A vocal anti-Semite, his other favorite targets included African Americans, Germans, and women. Whenever Jewish Justice Louis Brandeis spoke, McReynolds would leave the room. Of Jews, he once declared, â€Å"For 4,000 years the Lord tried to make something out of Hebrews, then gave it up as impossible and turned them out to prey on mankind in general- like fleas on the dog.† He would often refer to African Americans as â€Å"ignorant,† possessing â€Å"but a small capacity for radical improvement.† And in the rare (in those days) event a woman attorney appeared to argue a case before the court, McReynolds would exclaim, â€Å"I see the female is here ag ain,† before grandly gathering his robe and leaving the bench. Justice Hugo Black, Ku Klux Klan Leader Though widely recognized as a staunch supporter of civil liberties during his 34 years on the bench, Justice Hugo Black was once an organizing member of the Ku Klux Klan, even recruiting and swearing in new members. Though he had left the organization by the time President Franklin D. Roosevelt appointed him to the Supreme Court in August 1937, public knowledge of Black’s KKK history resulted in a political firestorm. Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black. Getty Images Archive On October 1, 1937, less than two months after taking his seat on the court, Justice Black was forced to give an unprecedented nationwide radio address to explain himself. In a speech heard by an estimated 50 million Americans, he said in part, â€Å"I did join the Klan. I later resigned. I never rejoined,† adding, â€Å"Before becoming a Senator I dropped the Klan. I have had nothing to do with it since that time. I abandoned it. I completely discontinued any association with the organization. I have never resumed it and never expect to do so.† Hoping to reassure African Americans, Black said, â€Å"I number among my friends many members of the colored race. Certainly, they are entitled to the full measure of protection accorded by our Constitution and our laws.† However, in 1968, Black argued in favor of limiting the scope of the Civil Rights Act as it applied to the protection of the rights of activists and protesters, writing â€Å"unfortunately there are so me who think that Negroes should have special privileges under the law.† Justice Fortas Denies Taking Bribes but Still Quits Justice Abe Fortas suffered a fatal flaw for judges. He liked to take bribes. Appointed to the Supreme Court by President Lyndon Johnson in 1965, Fortas had already faced serious allegations of improperly promoting LBJ’s political career while serving on the highest court in the land. Things got a lot worse for Justice Fortas in 1969, when it was revealed that he had accepted a secret legal retainer from his former friend and client, infamous Wall Street financier Louis Wolfson. Under their agreement, Wolfson was to pay Fortas $20,000 a year for life in return for special help and â€Å"consultation† during his pending trial on charges of securities fraud. Whatever Fortas did to help Wolfson failed. He ended up in federal prison and Fortas saw the handwriting on the wall. Though he always denied taking Wolfson’s money, Abe Fortas became the first and so far only Supreme Court justice to resign under threat of impeachment on May 15, 1969. Clarence Thomas, Anita Hill, and the NAACP The two most-watched TV events of 1991 were probably the First Gulf War and the Clarence Thomas vs. Anita Hill Supreme Court Senate confirmation hearings. Spanning 36 days, the bitterly fought hearings centered on accusations that Thomas had sexually harassed attorney Anita Hill when she had worked for him at the Department of Education and the EEOC. In her testimony, Hill vividly described a series of instances in which she claimed Thomas made sexual and romantic advances toward her, despite her repeated demands that he stop. Thomas and his Republican backers contended Hill and her supporters had made the whole thing up to prevent President Ronald Reagan from placing a conservative African American judge, who might vote to weaken civil rights laws, on the Supreme Court. Justice Clarence Thomas During Senate Hearings. Corbis Historical / Getty Images In his testimony, Thomas vehemently denied the allegations, stating, â€Å"This is not an opportunity to talk about difficult matters privately or in a closed environment. This is a circus. It’s a national disgrace.† He went on to liken the hearings to â€Å"a high-tech lynching for uppity blacks who in any way deign to think for themselves, to do for themselves, to have different ideas, and it is a message that unless you kowtow to an old order, this is what will happen to you. You will be lynched, destroyed, caricatured by a committee of the U.S. Senate rather than hung from a tree.† On October 15, 1991, the Senate confirmed Thomas by a vote of 52–48. Justice Brett Kavanaugh Overcomes Sexual Assault Claims People who remembered Clarence Thomas and Anita Hill probably got feelings of dà ©j vu watching the Senate confirmation hearings of Justice Brett Kavanaugh in October 2018. Soon after the hearings began, the Judiciary Committee was told that research psychologist Dr. Christine Blasey Ford had formally accused Kavanaugh of sexually assaulting her at a fraternity party in 1982 when she was in high school. In her testimony, Ford claimed that a visibly drunken Kavanaugh had forced her into a bedroom where he pinned her on a bed while attempting to remove her clothes. Expressing her fear that Kavanaugh was going to rape her, Ford added, â€Å"I thought he might inadvertently kill me.† Brett Kavanaugh Sworn In As 114th Supreme Court Justice. Getty Images News In his rebuttal testimony, Kavanaugh angrily denied Ford’s allegations while accusing Democrats in general- and the Clintons specifically- of attempting â€Å"a calculated and orchestrated political hit, fueled with apparent pent-up anger about President Trump and the 2016 election.† After a controversial supplemental FBI investigation found no evidence proving Ford’s claim, the Senate voted 50-48 to confirm Kavanaugh’s nomination on October 6, 2018. Sources and Further Reference Flanders, Henry. The Life of John Rutledge. J.B. Lippincott Co.Glass, Andrew. Abe Fortas resigns from Supreme Court May 15, 1969. Politico (May 15, 2008)James C. McReynolds. Oyez Project Official Supreme Court media. Chicago Kent College of Law.The Thomas Nomination; Excerpts From Senates Hearings on the Thomas Nomination. The New York Times (1991)Pramuk, Jacob. Trump Supreme Court nominee Brett Kavanaugh categorically denies sexual misconduct accusation detailed in New Yorker report. CNBC (September 14, 2018)

Security...See below Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Security...See below - Essay Example All laptops, cell phones, tablets, and gadget should be checked to mitigate this risk. Another element that is crucial to understand is collaboration with authorities. Airport personal must conduct a due diligence of collaboration with all authorities. They must create a network and collaboration in which all agencies work together to combat terrorism. This is crucial towards fighting domestic threats that are risky to this country. Moreover, a stricter immigration policy along with a solid criminal justice system here in America it would have to include making tighter rules on those applying for visa’s and green cards.   A focal point that all personnel must understand that authentication of identity is also extremely crucial. These background checks are absolutely necessary for traveling and other admin related tasks. A great enhancement in this realm is face recognition software, which can detect criminals when entering airports or even local municipalities. The new policy will ensure that all offenses including prior crimes such as identity theft, fraudulent documents creation, biological threat, and etc. Special issue: Intelligence, governance and the interagency. (n.d.). Special issue: Intelligence, governance and the interagency. Retrieved May 26, 2014, from